<Book Index>

Preface

Revised May 24, 2006

Foundations 2007

“Current computer science operates with models of information networking, and databasing that were conceived in the mainframe era and cannot serve the needs of a truly connected world.

Designing the Future of Information, Harbor Research Inc

Section 1: Preliminary notes

Section 2: Second School Principles

Section 3: The role of pragmatism

Section 4: Use philosophy

Section 1: Preliminary notes

In this book, a specific information architecture is outlined from a mixture of complex systems theory and knowledge representation theory. A strong attempt is made to make a principled grounding in the natural sciences.

It is with respect and appreciation that we identify an alternative to the semantic web and artificial intelligence disciplines, as classically envisioned by scholars like Jim Hendler [1]. We call the alternative the second school of semantic science and contrast this with the first school of semantic science. The first school does not make itself available to the concerns of leading edge neuroscience, biology or the social sciences, staying firmly anchored in scientific reductionism. This is a criticism, but we feel that the criticism is valid, objective and has supporting evidence. However, we are more interested in revealing the second school viewpoint.

The second school uncovers an information paradigm that is human centric. It preserves many of the engineered aspects of current information technology. The second school recognizes that knowledge of how and why things occur is critical to many modern activities. It recognizes that the current intellectual activity does not focus often on the how and why.

Statistical knowledge helps to define some envelopes within which things normally occur. The questions to who, what and where are given answers. However a discrete pathway, containing states and transition between states, is more descriptive of phenomenon such as gene expression or cell signaling [2]. [3] Gene expression research is one area where ontological mediated science is beginning to make transitions from artificial intelligence to something unexpected [4] [5]. The limitations of statistical approaches and the limitations to artificial intelligence are different, but in the viewpoint that I am describing they both take paths away from understanding the how and the why.

The second school suggests that social expression is as complex as gene and cell expression. All of these expressions of nature are part of the study within the principles of the second school. Properly understanding the second school’s viewpoint on complexity requires recognition about the limitations to the first school. Once this recognition is fully in place, then the second school builds on the existing technology through simplification and through the introduction of a specific set of principles.

The second school principles model natural process is being “sometimes” under-determined, with respect to deterministic causes. The natural processes such as decisions made by living systems seem to not only follow Newtonian laws but some other set of laws. The model requires a theory of stratification and emergence since we feel that the beginning of emergence is where a high degree of non-deterministic reality can manifest. This issue of emergence is common in the chapters to follow.

A fundamental principle of the second school has to do with conjectured non-algorithm aspects to these decision events. Sir Roger Penrose is not the only scholar who talks about non-algorithmic reality. For some reason, it is as if one has to start out showing that the assertion of “everything is algorithmic” is a false assertion. Francis Crick certainly makes this assertion in “The Amazing Hypothesis”. Accepting the second school principle is consistent with the assertion that artificial intelligence is a mythology and that this heavily funded academic discipline has produced a lot of poor scholarship. This poor scholarship has been seen to feed upon itself, producing a perceived illegitimacy to many aspects of “science”, particularly information science. In technology based on the second school viewpoint, we place an emphasis on having a human in the loop.

What does it mean to have information science be centered on the human being and not on the technology?

In the second school viewpoint, the human is (to be) supported by process and structural standards in developing information and encoding information into an ontological model. [6] The ontological model is something that will be a common focus to second school discussions. We feel that Hilbert mathematics, the advanced mathematics in physics, has a limitation that is only fully appreciated when the second school viewpoint is examined. In particular we suggest that introspection about internal feeling of self, that has so far been separated from mainstream science, can guide the development of new category theory, and from this category theory some new formalism based on category theory and not based on number. This will not be easy, for many reasons.

Our goal is to move the activity of science so that taxonomical, ontological and mathematical models are more easily interfaced, and mathematics is not over used [7]. The issues are not beyond easy comprehension, and require a specific background in literatures. There are several ways to approach this literature.

A discussion of the history of bio-mathematics could be developed at this point, but we defer this discussion. The key point that would be extended is that classical mathematics does not have the same level of success with biological functions as it does with engineered structures. Acknowledging this key point will be critical if science, and society, is to move information science in a new direction. In the text to follow, the reader will see that the new direction merges mysticism with science by making corrections to both disciplines.

For many scientists, the non-formalizability of common everyday activity is a given. Certainly one cannot point to formal systems with which everyday activity can be modeled. Yes, in specific cases, and within specific boundaries one can model, with formal methods, everyday activity. But these models are not flexible, and they certainly do not exhibit the types of emergent behavior, like the behavior of thinking, that we experience with great familiarity. The spiritual expression seems remote to the current materialism.

It is clear and simple to state that formal models using first order logic do not provide an adequate replacement for human awareness and reasoning. Web ontology language, for example, provides something that works, kind of, in some situations; but these formal methods have a number of specific problems. I mention web ontology language [8] even though many people have not heard of this. I will state here for clarity that my criticism of the web ontology language work product is grounded in a detailed history. Again; however, this criticism is not the focus I wish to make now.

We can state the obvious. In everyday activities, human being and communities localize (real) ontology situationally. This localization occurs through real physical processes that are supporting human awareness and cognition. The second school brings a simple representational technology to mirror these everyday activities. We do not call this “ontology” but rather we call it ontological modeling. The second school has revealed a technology standard [9] that is based on the notion that symbols reference concepts and that our human concepts about ontology might be referenced using symbols that emerge as part of human use patterns. I will try to be clearer about this as we move further into second school thought. An ontological model is a representation of reality via a set of concepts.

In theory ontological models [10] may be used by members of a community to encode new pieces of structured information into bit patterns that are compact, easily manipulated and can be visualized on a computer screen. Like words into grammar, the elements of an ontology use symbols to annotate concept indicators. The representation can be in the form of the W3C standard, a standard that uses a triple having the form

< subject, verb, predicate>,

but the W3C standard is only one form of ontological modeling [11].

The other well-known standard is the topic map standard. [12] I will not discuss topic maps here, simply because the history to far to complicated and the basis for not allowing topic maps to be the leading standard are too difficult to examine. The position I take is that the markets choose incorrectly. If we were looking for the best tools for modeling complex expression such as gene, cell or social expression we need topic maps and the “n”-ary representation presented in the notational paper, Prueitt 2002. [13]

The specific problems with the W3C standard can be listed, starting with the standard’s assertion that class structure be defined precisely. This assertion forces symbol systems to fix formal semantics and in this way to create formal ontology that is not the best model of natural ontology. Categories of processes cannot be modeled with this assertion in play. The list would also include the assertion that the resource description framework, on which the W3C standard depends, is sufficient to represent any type of human knowledge. The list would include the W3C’s dedicated professional support of a community of “knowledge engineers” who feel that they can encode everyone else’s knowledge but do not understand anything about biology or psychology and often nothing about the foundations of mathematics. Finally, the list would include the assertion that web ontology can infer new information in a way that is general and similar to the cognitive awareness of humans. This last assertion is the assertion made by the artificial intelligence discipline.

In the chapters that follow we make the case that there will not ever be machines made of abstraction that are self-aware. We make this case by looking at the nature of abstraction, and the biological processes that are necessary for thinking.

In work being developed from second school design elements, the manipulation of ontological models will be done via visual elements that correspond to the invariant aspects of experience as realized by humans. How one judges knowledge about “invariant aspects of experience” is by following accepted scientific peer review, modified by new methodology being synthesized from spiritual practice.

We hold that those who have intimate knowledge of a specific phenomenon will best develop ontological models about that specific phenomenon. For example biological scientists should not have to learn the rules of computer coding to develop and use information observed in biological laboratory experiments. The second school technology allows direct development of symbol systems by simplifying both the underlying data structure and the operating environments. [14] The optimal underlying data structure is an “n”-ary,

< r, a(1), a(2), . . . a(n) >

encoded using hash tables. In our proposed “.vir” subnet of the his underlying structure is managed without any software dependencies using the very basic computer processes. The operating environment uses a type of category management based on stratification (to be discussed later in the book).

These models can be explicit, and how these explicit models are represented is also addressed a bit later in this chapter. Semantic extraction technology will be discussed first. We have to first clear the air from the misuse of words by the knowledge engineering and artificial intelligence communities. The issue of misleading concepts has to be examined. I have used the term “polemic” to mean a mythology that is specifically designed to not encourage further examination or analysis. Semantic extraction is misnamed. The second school claims that this misnaming creates a polemical structure that improperly elevates the notions of artificial intelligence while disallowing a critical examination of what the full nature of “meaning” is. What these well-known techniques and algorithms do is to discover structural patterns, mostly based on co-occurrence of words or phrases. The “meaning” is then imposed using some type of taxonomy or web-ontology. But the “extraction” of meaning using these techniques is incomplete and sometimes incorrect. “Semantic extraction” would be better called “structure extraction”. The reason why the phase “semantic extraction” is used is that the hyped up buzz phrase “semantic extraction” has been rewarded with many grants and contracts. It is that simple.

In fact, an entire class of technologies measures the presence of concepts using subject matter indicators, such as the presence of word, stem or word phrase co-occurrence patterns. Some leading researchers regard semantic extraction as a generalized n-gram analysis [15] and we agree that most of the best semantic extraction software is some type of n-gram measurement with a set of heuristics defined over co-occurrence within the windows of an n-gram [16]. N-grams can be generalized to most of the methodologies developed in the extensive image understanding literatures. These literatures are well reviewed by Tapas Kanungo [17].

Some obvious technical comments are needed. The n-gram does not have to be a linear contiguous measurement of co-occurrence. As one of many generalizations of n-grams, some structure/function relationship might be used in the process of indicating information that may become knowledge if perceived by humans. The fulfillment of a function desired, or anticipated, by the environment is the same as the pure concept of “semantics”. Meaning and function are tied together by artificially imposing one community’s sense of meaning. Thus the values of the software vendors, which are very narrowly focused on their making money, over ride the natural functions that communities in crisis need to access. Transactions are placed under the control of that one community in a way that is not, up to now, transparent.

Service Oriented Architecture [18] has had the promise that lines of business will be facilities by a network of routers that control to flow of information generated by requests for services. This beautiful concept was usurped by the US Federal CIO Council’s work in 1993 – the present on allowing special interests to hard wire all procurement of services based on the nature of the software programs. Similar fears regarding the electrical process are facing us as we go into the 2006 Congressional elections. The solution to this structural problems between the citizen and the government is transparency and the type of personal knowledge operating systems that my group has designed, and partially implemented.

The independent observation of social discourse [19] opens up the possibility of a neutral measurement of functions asked for and received. For example, the grammar in natural language might be used in the computing of knowledge representations. The notion of “a passage” might be extended to include theories of discourse where the boundaries of passages are irregular [20] [21] [22]. Passages are then seen to be the expression of the various elements of human expression. More is to be said on a full generalization of n-gram measurement later.

The point is that, for many of the semantic extraction technologies, n-gram analysis occurs after there is a measurement process. Consistent with second school viewpoint, the measurement process should have human involvement as part of the real time situated activity leading to situational models of complex phenomenon. The measurement of individual expression involves a full spectrum of emotional, intellectual, cultural and spiritual realities. This is not what is occurring in artificial intelligence or knowledge engineering disciplines. The second school viewpoint holds that without a non-controlled real time involvement in measurement the phenomenon involved in normal response behavior will not be captured. So with academic and government supported research and development being somehow pre-occupied; what might be done?

This issue of what is to be done occupied me for two decades. The experiences I was fortunate to be involved in gave me the background to understand a specific set of issues, but the pre-occupation of the institutions providing academic jobs and capitalization seemed to be overwhelming. I personally and professional failed over and over. Over the years the broad outlines of a solution emerged. At first the outline of this solution was limited to what might be called the intellectual dimension to human expression. Beginning in 2005 I began to see that human expression remains poorly modeled if the emotional, economic, cultural and spiritual dimensions are not considered. This new understanding has been very difficult to integrate with the hard realism of science for the sake of commercialism and war fighting.

A very simple to use “knowledge operating system” is needed. This system must be processor independent and occupying less than 100k of code. The system has to have an internal interface to humans, and an external interface into the Internet. It must reside on any device that has a computer chip inside.

The first designs were focused on the use of sensors to bring information to the human, provide a repository of subject indicators, and provide structural information about common response patterns. These designs were developed for application to fighting wars, protecting commodity transport and creating service architectures for business transactions. Clearly these applications were skewing the underlying technology.

These comments point out that the technology that has been developed by government, business and the academy has not taken into account systems theory. What is known about design and functionality of natural systems? Lines of business defined as XML based web services between the federal government and commercial business establish empires. These programs have created advantages for a narrow type of economic transaction. No transparency on this service provision process is allowed simply due to the practice being so widespread as to be “business as usual”. What is dis-advantaged are human values related to family, the individual owning of homes, and the economic prosperity of individuals.

The concept of a utility function may help my inadequate description of the nature of the problem space we current face. This concept is applied to models of processes that are largely reducible to computer simulation. The discipline of genetic algorithms is an academic study of the evolution of computer simulations. [23]One sees the utility function as an essential part of these simulations. But more broadly we see the utility function as being the non-Newtonian guide to the evolution of natural systems. The point to my discussion about technology being shaped by commercialism and scientific reductionism is that this technology itself has become a utility function over our cultural and individual expressions.

Let me give a specific example. Dr Richard Ballard has for several decades worked on a non-serializable knowledge coding system. Several of his systems have been developed and deployed under government contract. These systems are designed to help manage government contracts in the area of national defense. The work solves certain types of problems but at core asserts a set of social and cultural values that are skewed towards economic transactions supporting war efforts. Ballard’s contributions are only very partially published since his work has been part of a proprietary process, to which he has shown dedication. Personal communications between he and several members of our community have helped in the development of views about how “semantic web” knowledge systems will work in the future. As my group and other groups work to achieve success in our professional efforts, the utility function created by war efforts has been shaping our work product.

Ballard’s work is not the only contribution that is beyond n-gram technologies. Another member of the second school is Tom Adi [24]. As does Ballard, Adi works with the notion that sets of semantic primes exists and are composed into subject matter indicators (during the process of generating language in normal everyday speech and writing). The work of both Ballard and Adi pointed me more clearly to the notion of generative data encoding. There is a generative progress involved in creating systems that “do something” in the real world. The question had become, “what have our technology systems been designed to do?”

Tom Adi’s work was always focused on understanding the cultural and personal aspects of human expression and thus has deep spiritual roots. Richard Ballard’s work has focused on providing ownership over the intellectual property produces by a narrow range of social expression. This work leaves out the spiritual values and replaces these with a competitive reality where ownership is essential.

A range of consequences develops due to the patterns of economic reinforcement. The drive to assist the individual and communities move toward sustainable and resilient ecosystems. The drive to achieve spiritual qualities has to compete with a fierce measurement of utility driven by commercialism. These facts are the facts of our lives in 2007. These facts are everywhere evident. Which drives will win out and become the dominate social reality of the twenty first century?

By examining my own work during the period 1991 – 2004, one can see how effective the utility functions have been. Starting in 2001, differential ontology [25] was directed at the production of knowledge representation from semantic extraction techniques. The extraction techniques develop co-occurrence patterns and these patterns are (in my architecture) presented to the individual for manipulation. A support structure for development of ontological models focused on the nature of individual human memory and anticipation. But the underlying motivation for the systems I was designing was to control commodity transport worldwide. [26]

In theory the focus of ontological model development becomes individually centric. The individual is supported in acquiring information that is relevant to real time situations. The general principles were that individuals should be empowered to take control of personally defined information spaces. There were issues of course. The nature of human expression is shaped by the means with which the expressions occur. The powerful consumerism shaped by the American success is reinforced as these models are used to control commodity transport. The utility function distorted my work product and limited what I was able to achieve. Was my experience unique to me? I do not think so.

Many people see that consumerism is wasteful and has created specific classes of imbalances. The principles that motivated the development of my model for US Custom’s control over worldwide [27] commodity transactions could be used to reduce waste in these transactions and to decrease the imbalances to or cultural, economic and environmental systems. But few in government were interested.

Over the past year, 2006, I have been more deeply involved in meditative practices in several retreat resorts in Taos and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The full integration of the human soul has been the subject of meditation practices for centuries. In retrospective, the approach I had been taken regarding the use of categorization seemed incomplete. Being human centric should mean more than an increased ability of the individual to be a successful consumer and war fighter.

The core issue seems to be how balances can be made between the various energy centers of the human being. The integrated self, made whole by meditative contemplation seems possible only when the more aggressive drives subside. On the other hand, the paradox remains as to what to do when there is such an imbalance between those who have economic power and those who do not. We will return to these issues often in the “Foundations 2007” [28].

Semiotics is a discipline that refers to a system of signs, such as natural languages. In differential ontology, signs may develop from an interaction between socially oriented knowledge management and normal everyday activities. This type of interaction depends on the development of instruments of communication like normal language, but in addition to the normal mechanisms of natural language there is a computational form. This form becomes part of a symbol system reified by use as a communications tool involving more than one person. The symbol system is managed through the human interaction. The individual symbols are each formal topics in the topic map.

In chapter one we will talk more about the cognitive neuroscience that inspired the full concept of differential ontology, and the “stratified architecture” that makes it work. At present I can only suggest that in the near future, humans will develop sign systems based on ontological models in a way similar to how geometry and arithmetic was developed historically.

We have come a long ways, in spite of obstacles. The first school is sidetracked by the assumption that classical logic is sufficient in computing the consequences of knowledge experiences in real situations. In part, they (and “we”) were lead into this mistake by the success that Hilbert mathematics has had in physics and astronomy.

The primary difference between ontological models and mathematics is that with ontological models the abstraction is more situationally focused. We may remember that physics and astronomy deals strongly with “universals”. However, living systems seem to have aspects that are not accounted for by the universals of physics and astronomy. This is interesting, and if correct this perception tells us about science and also about life itself! Imagine that!

Because incompleteness, inconsistency and uncertain information are often important properties of real biological processes, the focus on phenomenon is complex. For example, decisions are often made with uncertainty or informational incompleteness. In Chapter one we will look closer at the notion of “coherence” and see why this misuse was almost unchallenged.

We understand now where the open questions are located. The second school refers to most current “semantic extraction” as a syntagmatic extraction, since a structural pattern is “all” that is found. The certainty of formalism like geometry and arithmetic is found in the measurement of these structural patterns. There is no ambiguity in the results of this measurement. But the measurement process itself can be flawed. The measurement of structure, such as the concentrations of protein expressions at a specific time by a specific biological system, can be incomplete or mismeasured.

Beyond measurement issues are issues related to emergence of function. The measurement of the function of structure is where uncertainty, not related to incomplete knowledge, occurs. With differential ontology the measurement presents to human visual inspection those ontology signs and symbols that evoke meaningful mental experiences. The human is then allows, in real time, to make the categorical abstractions based on human intuitions and cognitive abilities.

In this way, the natural process of human induction is applied directly to the output of computational processes mediated by structured information, taxonomy and formal ontology. By leaving out the formal inferencing, we present for human inspection sign systems that are measuring precise patterns. The origin of knowledge is then within the control of the human who uses the system. [29]

A human experiences meaning. The computational “meaning” extraction processes is not “from a human” but rather from the organization of words in text. We measure a transaction space that is not directly the space where human thought is being developed and shared. We hold that when we misuse language, use the word “semantic” when we really should use the term “structure”, then we diminish the quality of the technology that is produced. We make mistakes because the misuse of language directs us into these mistakes.

Section 2: Second School Principles

The second school finds bypasses to specific hard problems that have blocked success in transitioning information technology to individual control. These bypasses produce a knowledge operating system useful to individuals or communities. We have been designing our knowledge operating system since 1998. The original design of KOS was made partially public. [30] In making these public disclosures we were acting in a way that is consistent with core principles, in particular the core principle that all software IP will eventually be set aside. This principle is based on a set of “optimality proofs” [31] suggesting that computational technology must eventually be optimal and not patentable. The current, 2006, details of the technology designs are layered with a social philosophy being on top. [32] At the bottom is a process methodology for starting with something fully specified. That technology infrastructure is then expected to evolve in a natural way. The knowledge sharing foundation concept was first developed (2003) as a suggestion supporting the US intelligence agency needs to develop information about event structure. [33] Previous to this, a small group of scientists had talked, since 1991, about the need for a curriculum, K – 12 and college, to support an advancement of cultural understanding of the complexity of natural science. [34] So one of the layers has an educational grounding.

The knowledge operating system can be as small as 17K and be independent of the usual software platforms. The KOS develops a referential base having a specific well know and standard format (essentially topic maps) and this referential base can be large. [35]

When a particular knowledge operating system has been provided structural information, a measurement process and the visual interface to a human perceptional system, then we create the basis for knowledge-based anticipation of “what is next”. At this point six classical Greek interrogatives; who what, where, when, how and why, are used to produces both new human knowledge and to allow a greater sharing of this knowledge. The technical means to achieve this interrogative based information definition uses what I began in 2003 to call “general framework theory”. [36]

We believe that the nature of the structural information and the nature of the transaction space for encapsulated digital objects will be accepted by the many virtual communities such as Second Life [37] . Structural information encoded as generative digital objects provides control mechanisms for the individual.

The key element of this potential acceptance is the second school principle that separates push and pull advertising.

But not all of the residents of Second Life are happy about the commercial gloss that is starting to spread throughout the world. They argue that the appeal of these fantasy realms was that they offer an escape from the uniformity of a globalized society. [38]

The separation of push and pull information has the potential to transform many kinds of social activity, from on line shopping to group collaboration within virtual communities.

The separation is made possible using several of the second school principles. In order to talk about these principles, we need to introduce the technology movement called “SOA”. Service oriented architecture (SOA) began to be a buzz phase in 2003 and 2004. Since that time great effort has been to develop standards that reinforce the existing centralized control over service definition. Individual business powers saw that a repository of service access points would change the status quo if services were merely competitive based on consumer oriented outcome measures. We observed that advertising is what keeps firmly rooted service providers in market positions. We also observed that the industry powers have a collaborative synergy that protects the concept of centralized authority.

I was living in Northern Virginia and attending government-sponsored meeting as the interest in SOA began to ignite. It was clear to me and to others that big business was working hard to not lose the existing strong monopoly on government funding for services. However, SOA is a concept whose time had come. I studied the emerging standards and followed the discussions.

An example of the business orientation of SOA is expressed in a recent advertising for a web seminar on SOA

The goal of a service-oriented architecture (SOA) is increased IT adaptability, reduced cost of application development and maintenance, and better aligned IT professionals and business users. But the ultimate benefit of an SOA is better information. And better information benefits business users. Done right, SOA can help business users shift their focus from merely running the business to maximizing the performance of their business. Not only will they be able to lower infrastructure costs, they can optimize their organization’s key assets – information, customers, and brand.

Literally hundreds of IT companies are in competition to “deliver” SOA transformations. However, it is conjectured, that there are real deficits in how the concept of a service is realized in any of the current leading SOA vendors.

The “.vir” standards start out with the general systems theory notion of a transaction space. The standard recognizes that the transaction space has a manifestation in natural reality and that any model of the transactions spaces is limited not only in the initial form but as a consequence of the normal evolution of natural systems. I am regarding the term “transaction” to be appropriate in describing the exchanges between living systems in complex ecosystems. [39]

The strategy we have developed is to lay down a best of kind MUD (multiple user domain) based on a long study of the 1988 DARPA MUD engine as realized in the Palace virtual community system and the Manor virtual community system, as well as the new system designs we see in Second Life. This work has been studied by several members of my close associates, in particular Nathan Einwechter in Canada and Amnon Meyers in California. As of November 2006 we are awaiting capitalization of OntologyStream Inc. [40]

VirtualTaos has also been designed to use a specific selection of the SOA standards, starting with the SOA Reference Model [41] A number of models describe how repositories of information are to be created and how programs or individuals should best interact with these repositories. Perhaps the reader would reflect on what he or she observes about the competitive marketplace of today. De-centralization of service selection would change the utility function, creating service information that was rated on objective community, ie consumer, measurement. Advertising per se would be reduced in importance and would change to allow a measure of the truthfulness of the information. Oh my!

The evolution of the concept of service-oriented architecture initially was focused on bringing order to a de-centralized flow of goods and services. The notion was, and still is, that the many representations of service potential should compete on a just in time delivery of these representation in response to service request. The service request drives the entire system, even if not decentralized. The orchestration of a selection is, in theory, totally managed automatically with no human interaction in the real time.

As the SOA architectures have become functional we see that the effort to hard wire competitive advantage extended beyond the IT vendor to selected collaborations with non IT service providers, further extending control over services to the IT vendors. Nowhere is this more obvious that in the education sector. Rather than get off into this discussion here, we simply give the URL where the most advanced deployments of service oriented architecture into education might be judged to be occurring. [42]

The anticipatory architecture, suggested in grant proposals by myself to US intelligence agencies in 2001 – 2004, uses syntagmatic expansion and contraction mechanisms to tease out the response patterns that are anticipatory of behavioral state transitions made by individual, economic and social systems. The notion of anticipation has not been developed in the SOA architectures, in spite of a number of standards describing such things as “service discovery” and “service fulfillment orchestration”.

The anticipatory technology’s principle technical innovation has to do with a separation of the substance of information into two types of ingredients. One type of informational substance is related to phenomena observed to be involved in human memory [43]. The other informational substance are those mechanisms, largely functional between the frontal lobes and the limbic system [44], involved in what Karl Pribram called “executive” control over mental event formation [45].

The second school’s formalization of this separation is inspired by a study of cognitive neuroscience and related scientific domains like immunological theory. The study of cognitive neuroscience and immunological theory was part of my “early career” (1985 – 1995). Knowledge Foundations [46] provides a look at this background. In Foundations, we address the technology and architecture inspired by this early work. The technology and architecture is informed by applied semiotics as practiced in a particular Soviet era school of cybernetics [47]. In this “applied semiotics” school, information primitives were derived from a set of invariances measured across multiple instances. A system of symbols arises that serve as control elements to computer assisted decision support systems. This scientific work was largely disrupted due to the collapse of the Soviet political and economic systems in the late 1980s.

Many core concepts are re-emerging as Soviet era science settles in other parts of the world and finds lines of research, native to those other communities, which are consistent with these core concepts. If one looks carefully it is possible to see that in all parts of the world general systems theory type work has been published for many decades.

One could study human memory research to fully appreciate the theory underlying our use of informational primitives and top down templates. However, one might also appeal to private everyday experience. In common experience we see invariants in our concepts of texture and color or emotional responses. These invariants are part of the experience we have as living human being. The notion of an invariant across many instances seems to have always been in my mind, but certainly my exposure starting in 1994 to the work of the Soviet era cyberneticians [48] intensified my focus on invariance as a means to identify “semantic primitives”.

Cognitive science proposes that the invariance that is experienced by a human mind is aggregated into a physical memory store. Direct experience subsets part, but not all, of these invariants in response to perception of specific things. In the biological processes supporting human awareness, the subsetting process is constrained by anticipatory responses and images of achievement and action [49] .

How does anticipatory technology compare with what we humans are familiar with in everyday life?

Everyone has direct experience with awareness, and experiences that come from the many acts of communication with other humans. In natural language, as in all other mental phenomenon that the human mind shapes, abstractions are used to refer to the invariance found in real experience. Examples of a system of abstractions are the concept of a counting number and the concepts about color. The concept of the counting numbers is a particularity nice example of an abstract upper ontology. The upper abstract concepts should have the property that they are unchanged by use. This independence from situational use is one property of arithmetic that gives us commerce and the engineering sciences.

Given a specific biological entity, a set of top down anticipatory templates will have been developed over a period of time. These templates model how events are connected together. Part of the mechanisms will be genetic and part will be specific to experience. How these mechanisms work is highly complex and is not yet fully understood as a matter of objective science.

The first ontological descriptions of behavioral patterns will be simplifications. The distance that has separated IT from the core behavioral sciences is a profound problem. We are not given funding support to bridge this gap, for complex reasons. It is simply beyond my personal ability to support this assertion in a scholarly fashion, and I apologize for this.

We could look at biologically motivated models of neural function. The ontological template is certainly reminiscent of the top down templates that Stephen Grossberg developed, starting in the late 1960s, as part of his mathematical theory of human perception [50]. The top down template in Grossberg’s architecture has been used in many types of applications and has been subject of thousands of research articles. The basic concept is that a basin of attraction of a continuum dynamical system develops through iterative adjustments to a mathematical model, in Hilbert space mathematics; resulting in what is called “reinforcement learning”. Parallels to reinforcement learning as studied by cognitive neuroscience have been reviewed by hundreds of major research articles. This research literature is vast, and we will allow the reader to look into this or not, depending on the reader’s level of technical background in Hilbert type mathematics and in the relevant sciences.

Ontology templates have a different nature. They are the explicit side of a dualism between explicit and implicit representations of subject indicators.

Figure 1: Fundamental diagram for differential ontologystream

By “implicit ontology” we mean an attractor neural network system of one to the variations of latent semantic indexing or rule based semantic extraction systems. By “explicit ontology” we mean a bag of ordered triples

{ < a , r, b > }

where a and b are locations and r is a relational type, organized into a graph structure and perhaps accompanied by logic.

Our templates have explicit forms and these forms can be part of additional technology such as colored Petri nets [51]. In my PhD thesis (1988), I developed several chapters on what I called homology between discrete dynamical systems and neural network models of the type that Grossberg invented. Later, in 2000, I made the obvious connection between discrete formalism state transitions and the state transitions seen in neural network models. This lead to the concept that one might be able to have both a discrete formalism, like a Petri net or like an ontology defined set of symbols with state transitions defined explicitly, and a continuum formalism like a neural network. Several technical means were developed to explore how to extract the discrete formalism involved in subject matter indication using the SAIC owned patented Latent Semantic Index technology [52].

My work in 2005 has focused on using human reification of the results of several commercial semantic extraction systems, including those sold by Convera, AeroText, MITi, and Applied Technical Systems. This work is discussed in the context of a Global Information Framework based on what I called the differential ontology framework (DOF) [53].

Ontological models extend the modeling function of Hilbert mathematics to formalism that serves to unify social construction about objects of inquiry into an objective set of concept representations. But, unlike Hilbert mathematics, there is no demand that universal truth is established through the formalism itself. Situational truth is established only via the usefulness that these constructions find as human communities use ontology to serve the community or individual purposes. Truth that extends beyond single instances is available within the context of reified standards, but ontological modeling should always acknowledge the possibility that new categories will arise.

There is a separate issue related to the nature of logical coherence. Logical coherence has always been loosely defined based on a sense of sufficiency in reasoning, i.e., what is considered rational. Rationality, in spite of its value, breaks down at a number of places. First is the problem that other minds do not always agree. This problem can sometimes lead to extreme problems. The fact is; however, that the underlying physics of coherence is what gives the sense of rationality a firm basis. The brain requires phase coherence in the electromagnetic spectrum in order to support perception and cognition. [54] The fact is also that in physical coherence we have phenomenon such as C-tuning forks and D-tuning forks. A D-tuning fork does not make a C tuning fork ring.

The core difference between the first school and the second school is that the first school assumes that Hilbert mathematics is the ultimate representation of truth, and that the imposition of first order predicate logic brings the ultimate truth of Hilbert mathematical reality to the ontology of social processes. At core this is the “ontological commitment” made by Cyc Corporation [55], and the history of this corporation is one key to understanding the limitations of the Semantic Web concept produced by the W3C standards body. The second school suggests that natural science shows this first school’s ontological commitment to be a profound error. The second school also suggests that when one gives up this error, one is able to define new technology that is both human centric and easy to use.

Differential ontology framework does in fact set up an anticipatory technology.

In our architecture, an encoding of templates and representation of invariance is achieved via a type of category theory and set theoretical operations called convolutions. Our formative category theory is used in the formation of behavioral atoms and periodic tables related to specific objects of investigation. The elementary operations that we defined using set theory is performed on a hash table like, key-less hash table, ontology persistence construction called an Orb (Ontology referential base). Referential ontology is regarded as a set of concepts, and can be translated into standard RDF (Resource Descriptive Framework) [56].

We conjecture that in the near future, ontological model based templates will be designed, by scientists or domain experts, to model behavior expressed in the “.vir” subnet of the Internet. This is fully consistent with a new OASIS standard specification called Business Centric Methodology. [57] In fact, the BCM standard is more general that what is needed to provide services to business processes. A derivative standard is being outlined with the name “Process Centric Service Methodology”. The two key innovations in the BCM standard is the notion of service blueprints, and provide a formative framework and human choice points that allow humans to choose between blueprints. This new standard and related standards is discussed more fully in chapter one.

In any natural situation, the function of emerging composites is formative within a specific template or between templates or categories of templates [58]. Opening up the interpretation of structure creates something for the human to do and the human will do this very well. How well future ontological models are defined depends on human individuals knowing that reality has situational features. Having a handle on these situational features is vital if one is to understand as much as one can about something like the intentionality of living systems [59].

The fact that categories drift and new categories emerge, unexpectedly, is the key to future ontology specifications.

Section 3: The role of pragmatism

Perhaps nowhere is the difference between the first and second schools more apparent than on the issue of pragmatism. The second school holds that meaning has a pragmatic axis. This axis exists only in a real situation.

Oddly enough, human awareness also exists only in the present moment. Natural situations occur only in real time. Abstraction is separated from this pragmatic axis and sits in a time independent fashion. Meaning is often indicated by an abstraction but it takes a perceptual experience to realize the full meaning. The abstraction in an ontological model, like text on a page in a book, evokes mental experience. In normal social discourse, this evocation occurs only in a non-abstract situation; i.e., in a pragmatic axis to reality (in the moment). The first school has been busy developing a world where the ontological specification occurs by computer science professionals. Up to a point this work is important and useful, but the true limitations to standardizing our representation of natural processes must be acknowledged.

The distinction between what is experienced and what is abstracted into natural language or formal constructions is the key to a Human-centric Information Production (HIP) paradigm. HIP is not free. The use of categorical abstractions and anticipatory templates by users requires an educational background that is different from that which most college graduates receive. We have to then take up the question of our educational system. We have asked questions about what should be in a K-12 curriculum designed to make knowledge operating systems as familiar as natural language is today.

The second school follows the path of scientific realism. While we acknowledge the utility of scientific reductionism, we also acknowledge the limitations that are created when reductionism is practiced as if a religion. We suggest that there are good reasons why science and mathematics is ignored and rejected by the majority of students. Science and mathematics have become a pathway to a narrow profession, not necessarily to an increase in personal knowledge. While it is true that the science and mathematics professions product economic value within our social system, it is also true that the economic engines that are being created are damaging our environment and perhaps the social structure. It need not be this way. We must look at nature and see it for what it is and not require that it fit within our expectations. The second school is a bridge to the knowledge science. We predict that the science of knowledge systems is to be built based on scientific realism.

We envision that the use of anticipatory technology will result in the formation of a world wide anticipatory web of activity. Different from the mainstream notions of a “semantic web”, the anticipatory web will arise from the activity of many individual humans using computers to provide structural information about aspects of real time, experienced, reality through a measurement of relevant data. The core issue is the separation of a reasoning component from a visualization and computational component.

Tim Berners Lee properly addresses this core issue in a 1998 paper [60] on “The Semantic Web as a language of logic.

A knowledge representation system must have the following properties:

1. It must have a reasonably compact syntax.

2. It must have a well defined semantics so that one can say precisely what is being represented.

3. It must have sufficient expressive power to represent human knowledge.

4. It must have an efficient, powerful, and understandable reasoning mechanism

5. It must be usable to build large knowledge bases.

It has proved difficult, however, to achieve the third and fourth properties simultaneously.

The semantic web goal is to be a unifying system which will (like the web for human communication) be as un-restraining as possible so that the complexity of reality can be described. Therefore item 3 becomes essential. This can be achieved by dropping 4 - or the parts of item 4 which conflict with 3, notably a single, efficient reasoning system. “

Tim Berners Lee’s remarks are consistent with a school of thought that points out the limitations that have been seen in formal systems. But his insight in to the limitations of formal systems is not complete. He does not question whether it is possible, under any circumstance, to have sufficient expressive power to represent human knowledge. An extensive scholarly literature exists about these limitations (see Chapter 2, Foundations).

Beginning in 2005, the BCNGroup (Behavioral Computational Neuroscience Group) declared that Semantic Web technology falls into two major schools of thought:

a) The First School of Semantic Science stipulates that ontology supports common sense reasoning with the imposition of constraint logics like OIL (Ontology Inference Layer for RDF – Resource Description Framework).

b) The Second School of Semantic Science stipulates that ontology enables knowledge sharing, which can best occur with minimal dependency on constraint logics and inferences based completely on algorithms.

One school holds onto the polemics of artificial intelligence by acting as if computer inference is more desirable than machine to human interfaces. This school brings us software systems, like Protégé [61] and Jena [62]. Very few professional computer scientists can get these software systems to work, and the possibility that average individuals will agree with the assertions of Protégé and Jena are zero. It is quite easy to point out how ridicules these assertions sometimes are. As a general rule confirmed by community experience, one gives up one’s human centric design principles in order to develop a working software system. The first school also participates in an all or none polemic where one is expected to completely accept the standards-based assumptions. The first school advocates tend to ignore those who do not agree. Proponents of the first school often demonize those who will not buy into the standard. This behavior is reinforced by the control over the funding mechanisms that the first school has enjoyed. The reader is reminded that the author understands that his criticisms of the system have been hard to justify. The situation is both complex and filled with difficulties having cultural roots.

We can make this very simple. The second school rejects the notion, in principle, that one can substitute computational inference for human reasoning and the human experience of meaning.

We can be polite to the old ladies. This rejection does not give up advanced computational algorithms such as those found in what is currently called “semantic extraction”. Algorithms such as neural architecture inspired pattern extraction and categorization, latent semantic indexing and probabilistic latent semantic analysis, are extremely useful in developing computational instrumentation that measures invariance and patterns of invariance. The algorithms produce subject matter indicators and these indicators are used in a methodology developed within the second school. So we build on what is correct about what we now have.

In the second school paradigm, the individual will produce information in a fashion that allows both a pre-structuring of response and communication channels and the creative input in real time. This human centric approach sets aside the unreasonable desire for an efficient, powerful, and understandable reasoning mechanism. In making this choice we move away from an often very difficult technical discussion about logic constraint language standards and consistency checking. We move toward an analysis about knowledge sharing that is often not at all about the limitations of computer science and formal constructions. We are able to speak in a plain language about the social and individual experiential aspects to knowledge sharing within communities of practice. The discussion shifts from dysfunctional IT to social theory, human factors and knowledge management issues.

No one can tell what social transformation will occur co-incident with the appearance of low cost and easy to use to use anticipatory technology. Certainly the advent of the second science of semantic science will transform the criterion that has controlled federal and private funding of semantic web activity. This transformation will mark the end of a period of time in which science has been held back by religious type beliefs. Oddly, the religion of reductionism is what separates theories of intelligent design from mainstream funded science. By respecting, but putting aside, the polemics that come from this separation, we are allowed to regard human introspection as a proper subject of scientific investigation.

We restate that the role of the individual is critical in the formation of constructions relied on by anticipatory web mechanisms. These constructions do share properties related to the origin of natural language and properties from the induction of logico-mathematical formalism. These properties suggest a way to overcome the specific types of limitations that computer science inherits from the foundations of mathematics. So one does not avoid the need to understand the history of logic, and the natural science related to mental events. In fact the second school elevates the natural sciences and the history of formal constructions such as arithmetic and mathematics. Human-centric information processing has deep roots in the history of science. We celebrate this history.

HIP requires a human reification of sets of subject matter indicators. This reification process imputes semantics through an induction of real mental events as experienced by humans. The human, not the computer program, is given responsibility to understand the emerging situation. The human is helped without hindering. The human is given the responsibility to decide, and with this given responsibility we shift the evolution of a culture that has more and more hidden its moral responsibilities in confusion and legal complexity.

In our technology the set of induced constructions encode knowledge of objects of investigation into structural ontology. The structural ontology is open to modification while being used in everyday activity. As in the origin of natural language, the encoding of structural information into explicit form is an origin of computable mechanisms that support and extend social use patterns. How a specific social use pattern persists as part of everyday life is a question we address with event chemistry. As in physical chemistry, event chemistry assumes all events are composed from a small set of primitives. The mental events are experienced as single coherent phenomenon, but each is composed of semantic primes. In physical chemistry the primes are in each case from a single set of physical atoms. There is universality to the set of atoms. Think about this for a moment! Why should mental events be different, in this respect, than chemical events? Yes, mental events may have constraints and causes that are not governed by ONLY the conservation laws that appear to fully constrain physical chemicals. The nature of life is not a closed scientific question.

In semantic space the event structures are more difficult to determine, and may not be as simple as with physical chemistry. We do not know as yet how to map between semantic primitive space and the experience of meaning by humans living within everyday activities. But who do we need to get permission from to explore these issues openly?

In the several semantic extraction systems that we have looked at, we find slightly different sets of primitives. But a set of primitives is always there, implicitly or explicitly.

In some cases, the primitives are found as part of the process of using the software. In some cases, notably the Adi and Sowa systems, the primitives are specified. How semantic primes are used in each case can be discussed only after some common notational machinery is developed and accepted as language between experts. Our notational paper on ontological referential bases [63] offers such a language. It should be noted that this language is not first order predict logic with lots of symbols that are difficult to comprehend. We use very simple set theory and well referenced general systems theory. This foundation is very simple.

In future systems, based on differential ontology, we expect to use an extension of Mill’s logic and QSAR (qualitative structure function relationship) analysis to instrument an inferential entailment defined on produced ontological model states. The result should also extend a classical state transition simulation technology called colored Petri nets [64]. Behavioral analysis that is global in nature is then immediately possible.

This work extends some principles in current chemical science to a set of principles in an emerging science of complex systems whose regularity within context can be recognized and used as informational products produced from computational semiotic systems.

Machine encoded structural ontologies persist by encoding structural information in the form of very simple graph constructions. These constructions can be expressed as Topic Maps, or in the W3C’s Web Ontology Language (OWL) standard, on in other data encoding mechanisms that have higher efficiencies related to storage and transmission. However, standard ontologies are most generally manually developed. There is no formative process, except perhaps has hidden in the professional journals of knowledge engineers and artificial intelligence scientists. The Orb ontologies, see Appendix B, are semi-manually developed since some part of the ontology is produced in a subsetting query to manually developed ontology. But a considerable part of the Orb is a measurement of co-occurrence patterns. The co-occurrence is often not merely of proximity of words to each others, since the measurement may first reduce text to an ordered set of stems or other indicators of the presence of primitives. The Adi structural ontology is the clearest example of the reduction of text to a measurement of semantic primitives, but Ballard’s and Sowa’s work has similar reductions. The measurement for semantic primitive indicators results in an aggregation of indicators into an indicator about a higher-level construct; such as a concept. Applied Technical System’s NdCore semantic extraction system, as well as the Entrieva semantic extract system, has this aggregation function.

The aggregation of semantic primitive indicators into concept indicators is a key element of all semantic extraction systems. This is observed in the Orb notational paper (Prueitt 2005) and is the basis for event chemistry analysis of structure/function between semantic primitive indicators and the concept indicators.

However, it is critical to now make a reference to the notion of stratification. In “Knowledge Foundations” [65] one finds the physical theory that grounds the claim that human memory arises as an emergence of localized coherence. Several chapters focuses on evidence from natural science that a stratification of physical processes is available and enforced on all physical processes, including those that support human cognition. This claim is addressed in a physical science foundation to a new anticipatory and knowledge sharing technology that I have suggested.

Figure 2: An early control interface over an ontology referential base

A “formative” model of mental event formation is suggested by physical science. The model is transferred to a technology for formative ontology. In the anticipatory web, information is created by putting together ingredients, within the constraints of a real time situation, with the aid of direct human involvement. The information is encoded as sets of concepts, often with various subject mater indicators that allow the user to create computable subsetting, or filtering, programs that gather together all information necessary to have localized a clear, complete and consistent (the 3Cs) representation of some object of investigation.

In the differential ontology framework (referred to as “DOF”) the subsetted set of concept representations produces a visualizable, small, data encoded construction called an instance-scoped ontology individual (referred to as is-OI). The is-OI is evocative of a human mental event, and when perceived produces an induction of meaning from the availability of human tacit knowledge and from the set of structurally encoded concept representations.

Within the new technology, anticipatory mechanisms natural to human intelligence are given additional support via a set of computer-encoded invariance and the templates. The anticipatory technology does not treat the computer, or computer networks, as being the origin of intelligence. The computer is regarded merely a measurement device.

In an anticipatory web the nature of computing is placed into a context where natural science is able to make explicit the limitations that computers have, and not over step these limitations. This recognition about limitations has many benefits. First, a mature view of information science is taken.

The maturity is well deserved. Unlike the first school, we do not assume that computer programs can know anything. We acknowledge that the computer is not aware of information and cannot verify if the information is appropriate. The importance of individual humans working on every day activities is recognized.

One of the surprises coming from anticipatory technology has to do with some specific innovations that simplify data management through a clear understanding about the relationship between data, information, and the experience of information as human knowledge. Simple data encoding innovations support anticipatory technology. A clear parallel between the cognitive neuroscience and the mechanisms that produce situational Orb structures allow the users to appreciate but the knowledge of neuroscience and the mechanisms that assist in everyday work. These data encoding innovations are fully explained and illustrative software is available to the reader [66].

History will record the struggle between the two schools, and the eventual revolution in information science. The changes that will accompany this revolution will be profound. For example the importance of computer science will be diminished in order to make way for a science of knowledge systems. Certainly most, but not all, of the computer science PhDs will oppose this revolution.

The introduction of natural science to the design of anticipatory architecture leads one to bypass what are now perceived as intractable problems with the use of computers. Cyber security and the control over information by advertising activities is part of the class of problems that anticipatory technology is able to bypass. Everyone knows the power that the advertising industry has. Knowledge science will ultimately reduce this power, as individual people become more knowledgeable about what they as individuals want to make expenditures on. Advertising is “billed” as fulfilling this need to know but it does this by pushing information that is often not correct, or is deceiving in nature. The knowledge technologies simply allow individuals more control over what is available to the individual as knowledge.

The reader should be skeptical, but open to an exposition of results from the natural sciences and a demonstration of a technology that should be on the market place by the time this book is published. The exposition provides a foundation to understanding what natural science has come to know about things like mental event formation and the nature of natural language. At the same time, the technology itself exposes multiple bypasses to difficulties we as a society have with current information science.

Interest in complexity and in knowledge representation has grown over the past two decades. Because of this interest, increasing activity exists in academic scholarship and in commercial and industrial practices, such as eBusiness, Business Process Re-engineering and collaborative workspaces. There are now many related published articles and books in this general area. They include elements of marketing, cognitive science, computational sciences, operations research, and neuropsychology.

The principles that support anticipatory architecture are scattered about in the literature, like the pieces of a puzzle. When we started working on “Knowledge Foundations”, in 1995, we felt that the pieces of this puzzle might be put together. We had some sense of the difficulties that are implicit in the interdisciplinary nature of our project. The ten years, 1995 – 2005, have brought to us a deepening experience of the science and the frustrations caused by cultural barriers.

The cultural barriers are merely the tip of the ice berg. The deeper core cause of dysfunction in modern IT systems is found in set theory and logic. We must acknowledge that the formal constructions used in computer science are derived from the foundations of classical set theory. The second school makes the claim that these constructions do not admit the natural complexity found in natural systems. The claim is simple, and the argumentation in support of this claim is extensive. Why can we not listen to this argumentation and make the adjustments to our information science?

Program managers, policy makers and others, make decisions in an environment where the required argumentation is simply not allowed. It is the resulting confusion that has shaped the computational sciences and commercial applications of computer science. The reason why our civic society has not made the adjustments is that these decision makers recognize the role that natural complexity must play in the resolution of information sharing problems. This recognition is tacit and leads to behaviors to isolate the origin of control into the hands of a few.

Our social confusion is related to the nature of abstraction and the formation of language, mathematics, theories of science and private theories of self. There is no special field of investigation that looks at confusions of this type and seeks to resolve problems. The second school shows a path towards a resolution to this social confusion. This path leads through a socialization of the power of control and it is for this reason that we find the knowledge science repressed.

We feel that in the near future that a science of knowledge systems will take responsibility for confusions that arose and persisted. In taking this responsibility, the new science will turn to principles of realism. What we observe about reality is what we have to explain, even if what we observe is not logically coherent. The knowledge sciences must lead to some truth finding, even with this truth finding is not a comfortable process for those who have acquired financial/intellectual power.

The nature of observation and the relationship that observations have to notational constructions is where the line of attack must begin. An extension of formal mathematics is required.

The extension requires that the process of induction be left (partially) open so that individual users might determine the meaning of elements of a symbol system at the last moment, i.e. in real time. Human memory and anticipatory mechanism provide this last minute induction to every living system. In a computer based anticipatory system, knowledge of structure and possible meanings can be constructed in advance of critical missions that require a perception of the facts on the ground. So we are now able to move the kind of intelligence that individuals have, always, to a collective system where knowledge of invariance and patterns of invariance allow a collective aggregation of human information production into a single system. The result will be collective intelligence about complex situations typical of social realities.

Natural science appears to indicate that many of the mechanisms involved in awareness are not subject to direct human observation. The experience of information by a human does not at the same time come with an understanding of the mechanisms that cause information to be experienced. These mechanisms are not observable, and yet private experience is immediate and complete. The metaphor to logic and computer processing is attractive but incorrect.

This metaphor must be replaced. It must be turned on its head. How it is to be turned on its head is through the notion of stratification.

The awareness by a human of a situation is always far more powerful than a dependency on first order predicate logics will capture. What might be more useful is a structural knowledge of how things in the real world tend to fit together. There is no inference required, just structural knowledge. The corrections to computer science are found in sound science that accounts for direct human observation and for the class of non-observable causes of events.

Stratification theory suggests causes outside of those that can be observed. Stratification theory honors the best science when that science looks at the complete picture. How the new science will come to give language to the notion of stratification is critical to how fast and how far we will advance in the near term.

The bottom line is two fold. First, science has just not gotten to an explanation that is simple enough as yet. Second, our society has fallen into the trap characterized by the uncritical examination of what is heavily funded by entrenched institutions. What is funded is complicated and confused, but is certified as being the best science, in spite of the fact that the “best science” is defined to be what is best for those institutions that receive funding. Shifting the paradigm will allow funding decisions to be based on a different set of criterion. For example, individual members of computer science departments will simply shift their interests towards a more productive activity.

Academic entrenchment will be replaced by open and clearly defined productivity. Why should anyone doubt this? Of course people want to be productive and server a cause greater than oneself.

The reader is encouraged examine the claim that various mnemonics are used to reinforce a false notion of science. A polemic is developed [67], as polemics often are, so that terms in social discourse are given a false meaning. The false meaning is then used to re-enforce the notion that natural intelligence is not a subject for scientific inquiry. Many people would say that religion should be consulted here and not science. These individuals would limit the inquiry that natural scientists would like to make regarding the nature of life. If science itself remains confused by disciplines like artificial intelligence, then religious and secular fundamentalists are successful in their inventions. The polemic works when people are confused about what the academy says about intelligence. The polemic works when religion is subverted by a narrow viewpoint. The origins of religion and the origins of science can be seen to be in a balance that is worthy of the human condition.

Beyond the current political and philosophical tensions, we see a positive economic, cultural and social revolution. Not only anticipatory technology but also other forms of knowledge technologies will soon rapidly transition markets. How soon? No one can tell. At one point, however, the economic, political and ideological inhibition aligned against the formation of knowledge science will collapse. Economic reality will cause this inhibition to collapse.

Just look around. Many social and religious beliefs show concern about a science of knowledge systems. The polemics express this concern and stand in the way of an economic benefit. On the other hand, the knowledge sciences can be applied to the solution of specific social problems, such as those foundational to a modern medicine. Social interests can be stimulated as knowledge technologies are applied to entertainment and education.

Knowledge science has applications that enhance the creative expression of individuals. Within the Internet communities, new types of software systems are supporting the management of collective intelligence in communities connected by web technologies. These communities have shared interests brought together via connectivity in the web. With the technologies described in this text, one can develop a process that accurately measures social discourse in real time and differentially tunes the measurement to specific communities.

The second school suggests the possibilities of a structured machine based knowledge ontology having no “required” logical inferences and no proprietary art form. The abstract constructions of structural ontology have a capacity to participate together with a human, in manipulation of structure and meaning. We believe that anticipatory software will be used to "mediate" human discussions, and thus has the potential to bring web-based discussions to a higher plane.

Anticipatory technology depends on human cognition to make subtle corrections to the processes of algorithms. In exchange for this human touch, the technology opens up the human induction process. Individuals and communities develop symbol systems that can become empowered with knowledge processing systems, like the Adi structured abstraction ontology [68], the Stephenson structured abstraction ontology [69] for cyber attack mechanisms, or the Ballard knowledge processor [70].

In anticipatory technology, an action-perception event loop is defined that records certain parts of decisions made by the human in a fashion that builds two types of artifact repositories, one related to memory of the invariant aspects of the past experiences and other related to the environmental conditions. Over time, this artifact library assumes the role of preserving a memory of text read, messages exchanged and decisions made. The artifact library is organized into a structural ontology using the generative methodology that we are working to establish preliminary knowledge about.

The second school establishes the historical, scientific and notational foundation preliminary to the exposure of a generative methodology and its application to specific objects of investigation. The second school focuses on philosophical viewpoints, notational devices from logics, semiotics and physics, and a review of the natural sciences as expressed in cognitive neuroscience literatures [71]. Core to this focus is an understanding of the nature of an induction by a human mind producing an abstract representation of some aspect of experience. Induction is core to the phenomena surrounding the experience by humans of language, mathematics and the formal constructs of science.

The machine processes cannot know and cannot understand the meanings or the context of these artifacts. Much like the book, the computer is a place to put an abstract representation of human knowledge. The machine can be used to develop models of anticipated meaning based on the composition of the invariance produced from measurement. A validated theory of type becomes available as part of the computational process. The artifacts are sharable when the process is revealed in an accessable curriculum. The creation of a simple technology is now seen to be a function of the average user’s educational experiences.

In the new information science, an individual human manages the abstraction process producing computer-based categorization of a theory of type. The technology does not overly encumber the individual’s own tacit knowledge of situations. The resulting new capability has radically different properties for any of the current generation information technologies. This capability is consistent with any individual’s interest in creative expression.

It is understood that not everyone is interested in creativity. However, the inability of institutions to deal with change is often a function of the degree to which human creativity is discouraged.

Section 4: Use philosophy

In developing the knowledge sciences curriculum, some sorting of “facts” has to be made, since not all of the scholarly literature is equal. Some deep mistakes can be seen, with hindsight. Some voids are present that need to be filled in.

The most critical void is in mathematics curriculums and misplaced (under) expectations made on average students. The expectation is measured against algebra and the calculus. This measurement of student ability and interest is unwise. Not only does it fail to measure student ability, but it forces most students to turn away from mathematics and science.

The proposed “science of knowledge systems” curriculum modifies the standard university curriculums to include more material from the history, foundations and philosophy of mathematics. This new material would justify the importance of abstraction and place the formation of abstraction in a context that allows the students to understand that mathematics is but a mere language. This curriculum would teach evolutionary theory along with the theory of intelligent design. Both would be taught as theories of science supported by objective evidences.

Most freshman students have developed an understanding that higher mathematics is meaningless to them. Due to experiences in school they have learned that they cannot learn “mathematics”. Central to a new curriculum will be instructional materials that help young students understand the nature of abstraction. This means that freshman college students will re-learn the foundations of arithmetic and will address intellectually challenging and interesting information about the induction of the set of integers. The induction of the integers arises first from the need to have accounting for purposes of commerce.

The success of counting numbers set up the grounding of science in a numerical model of reality. It is here, in spite of the many successes of modern engineering science, that one may ask questions about alternative “inductions”. The theory of ontology formation is foundational to a natural science of complexity. The recommended curriculum first develops the concepts of arithmetic and then extends, not to algebra, but to upper ontology such as the ABC ontology [72]

The induction of abstraction for the purpose of making sense of the world does not have to involve the numerical model [73]. The induction of geometry is very closely related to the induction of the integers (see the work on inductive informatics by Lev Goldfarb [74]). The application of ontology to medical science and to the social and psychological sciences is what we have not as yet seen. We first have some work to do with curriculums.

In a renewed mathematics and computer science curriculum, elementary mathematics does not become inaccessible due to a specific set of confusions about the nature of abstraction. The nature of abstraction, in the context of an induction of the set of integers is placed in a social and cultural context. Other forms of symbolic representation of experience can be demonstrated. In fact, we are able to made presentations about the induction of knowledge processors. John Sowa, Richard Ballard and Tom Adi have each developed specific knowledge processors, which have been available as software systems since the early 1990s.

In our schools, the educational system must not elevate engineering above the natural sciences. High school training in basic mathematics must lead the student into natural science; not the engineering sciences, but the natural sciences. Those students who wish to devote time to engineering must be shown that cognitive and social problems are not merely a question of good engineering design. A central element of the proposed curriculum addresses the relevance of the topological notion of nearness to mainstream text understanding technologies based on theme vectorization of word occurrences in text [75]. Is it reasonable to ask about the nearness of the concept of love to the concept of hate, for example? The arithmetic concept of nearness is exact and precise. But this notion that concepts can be “near” to one another is imposed on semantic technology without a full consideration. There are alternatives, but these are not explainable within the information technology paradigm that our society allowed to develop in the second half of the 20^th century.

A theory of cognition is available in the neural network and genetic algorithm literatures. This work represents a good start. But the literature leaves many basic questions open and unresolved and continues to be overly mechanistic. This literature is to be supplemented by scholarship that goes to the basic questions about how human memory, awareness and anticipation functions as an expression of natural mechanics.

The objective is a practical one. How does a student use HIP tools? Can the student be informed by a deepened understanding of the relevant natural sciences? Given the current curriculums, how can our children learn a new type of information science; one that is appropriate to the age in which he or she will live? How are hard problems in social and cognitive science to be framed?

For example, human discourse relies critically on the use of a "time lens" to gather from real-time experience two classes of "subtleties of meaning" [76]. Anticipatory technology exploits a time lens based neuro-cognitive process architecture, as discussed in Chapter Four of the Foundations. The first application of anticipatory technology was made in 2002 in response to intelligence community needs. A high level decision was made, a decision that originated in a request from the President, to create a technology that maps the social discourse in Muslim countries, and to use logics over the constructions in this map to anticipate Muslim community responses to Presidential actions and speeches, see Chapter Nine in Foundations.

a b

Figure 3: One of the research tools for Ontology referential bases (Orbs) and the corresponding ontology lens

Prueitt (2002) invented an ontology lens and the fields of differential ontology and formative ontology as part of his work on this system. This technique allows the focus of special graph constructions; called Ontology referential bases (Orbs), that are formed as a representation of the co-occurrence of invariance in measured sets, of text with natural language expressions.

There is very little political insight into how the lens works in social discourse. So, for example, the social discourse after the 2004 elections often involved polls whose absence of insight was profound. Long periods of television time are used to explain away the sense of mismatch between what pollsters have to say and what people feel and talk about. We saw these explanations as a reinforcement of the polemic that creates the impression that the television experts truly understand the opinions of the American people.

The issue that we are raising in the preface to the Foundations is that the notions necessary to understanding the nature of social discourse is absent in the media representation of the social discourse. The technology that we have developed provides an alternative means to measure the collective need to understand ourselves. The alternative involves a non-numeric, non geometric, induction following a computer-based measurement of co-occurrence patterns in archived text organized in a proper temporal order. The in-correct attribution by some formal logic about the “nearness” of one concept to another concept is not made. These notions about how things are related are left to the individual awareness in real time. The development of informed judgments about what the opinions of the American public are is left un-affected by the mechanisms that support the polemics. The great diversity of opinion is allowed to be manifest without ranking opinions as being acceptable or better than a “mainstream”.

It is not true, however, that structural ontology supports the development of social relativism, where there is no truth outside of mere community consensus. Truth finds a deeper expression in multi-culturalism and the respect for alternative viewpoints that are not those now controlled by the polemics.

Structural ontology has three levels, and is stratified in exactly the way we have represented to be essential to a knowledge technology. Several examples have been developed and is now available as software. One such software system, developed and expressed as commercial software by Adi, measures variations of letter patterns in text. This measurement avoids grammar and semantics of words. From the measurement, a subsetting occurs within what is in essence a substructural periodic table.

A second layer of abstraction was constructed to express a theory of natural kind related to the types of expression that humans need to make as part of everyday experience. A part of this second layer is triggered by letter patterns. These patterns are measured in a repository of text using simple algorithms. The trigger focuses, or subsets, the second layer constructions, resulting in the production of a representation of the social discourse occurring in that repository.

This notion of a time lens is not a question of philosophy but one of empirical observation and proper use of terminology. The proper terminology suggests that human experience, and processing, of subtleties of meaning are complementary in nature and form upper and lower envelops to the coherent packet that is produced by a "Fourier like transform" of energy distributions (Pribram, 1991). In our view, the coherent quantum-electric-chemical packet is formed from the emergence of autonomous systems from a substructure, knowable as statistical objects, and an ultrastructure, known as context. Quantum, electromagnetic and chemical processes are involved.

Emergence is into a middle layer that appears as a complete world to the “thing” that is created. This may be true because the process of emergence itself establishes the broad relationships and potential for relationship as part of the formation process. The physical power of phase coherence is seen in Pribram’s neurowave equations as a control constraint on the emergence of mental expressions. We speculate here, of course. But the idea is that one can theorize about the nature of coherence in a different way using stratified theory than one can using the classical theories. Observations about coherence and emergence are placed into experimental and theoretical frameworks and can be tested.

In our work, a metaphor to the quantum mechanical view of the natural world is often made, since atomic phenomenon is known as statistical objects and the chemical compounds that make up this world are constrained by a set of conservation laws. We conjecture that these conservation laws are not “universal” except within an organizational level. For example, science simply does not know what the conservation laws are for string phenomenon. This radical conjecture about universal law is not something that can be proved, as yet, but the alternative cannot be demonstrated either. As the reader will see in the Foundations, the conjecture has several corollaries that apply to a theory of mental event formation.

The second school suggests that all things that interact within a set of conservation laws are technically part of the same level of organization. The “knowledge processor” is a computer encoding of three layers of abstraction. These three layers of abstraction corresponds to three levels of organization that cognitive neuroscience tell us .are actually involved in the functioning of the human brain. The substructural and ultrastructural levels are organizational abstractions that we develop as a means to produce the specific constructions within a mew class of knowledge processors. Notions of completeness and coherence are to be applied within, but not across, the layers of organization. The knowledge processor works by allowing a measurement process to connect with real event structures. Measurement grounds the knowledge processor into a pragmatic context only accessable, we suggest, in the moment. However, the notion of coherence and completeness can be applied to abstract knowledge representations, as we know from foundations of mathematics literatures.

In the case of social discourse the event structure is measured, by algorithmic parsing at a substructural layer, the language being used. The middle layer of a structured ontology is also complete in a technical and observational sense. Using HIP we place ourselves into this middle level. We produce a measurement of the event structure in real time. We can see event structure that is common to our thoughts and the pictorial or graphical representation of measured invariances. The magic occurs in the human mind, not in the mythological computer experience of reality.

The technology that arises from human-centric information production within the tri-level architecture is complete observationally, since what can be observed directly is part of a single reality. But we do experience the paradoxes familiar in the Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland. In classical theory, those sets of causes that cannot be observed directly, like the contents of someone else’s introspection, are treated as not part of the “complete world”. The social difficulties that arise, because of this treatment of the other person, is then “seen” as irrational.

The problems with coherence do not go away, and in a stratified theory terminological reconciliation must be accounted for in the “cross organizational scale” transformations. We have many tools that address this issue. In Chapters 6 and 7 of the Foundations we look at Q-SAR (qualitative structure activity relationship) analysis and the Soviet era logics called quasi-axiomatic theory. The appendix reveals a simplication of the Soviet approach to creating abstraction related to the mechanics of cross scale processes. We also see reconciliation process support in the knowledge processors revealed within three or four commercial software systems.

The tri-level notions make sense to some but not to others. There is a question of perception and in seeing evidence in a specific light. For example, in the stratified theory, the two classes of non-observable artifacts, related to memory and anticipation, each have what the other class does not have. Statistical artifacts are independent of another. One has one or one does not. But the conservation laws come “together” all at once, so to speak and entangle the output of memory mechanisms with the mechanisms of anticipation. We experience a single awareness of the world.

This difference in non-observable classes is due, in part, to the difference in time scale. The atomic elements, of the memory mechanism, are categories of occurrences, what we will call categoricalAbstractions or cA. Stability over the set of cA atoms is due to the forcing of a categorical folding that places slightly different elements into crisp categories. The category replaces the identity of the individual elements, in an context where the system uses elements from a category as non-differentiated. This is much like factory workers in a factory. The roles required by the factory dominate individual differences.

One might observe that the boundary of a category is sharpened when categories develop strong relationships with other categories as part of the processes involved in the formation of compounds. Why would a category become more crisply defined in those cases where other categories are developing that have many relationships to the first category? The reasoning as to why seems to me to be self-evident. However, I understand that this self-evidence is due to my training and knowledge of literatures. Likewise, the environment, in which composition of atomic element aggregate together, has self-organizing properties. Compounds only form if there is a need by the environment that they form, and so only a small number of possible compounds actually do form. Is this self-evident to the reader?

Other fundamentals, like the notion of coherence, are changed in appearance from one level of organization to another. Because we “live” in the middle world, coherence is seen as a property of middle world inter-relationships. In the substructure; however, the meaning of relationship has a different tone than does the meaning of relationship in the middle level.

Perceptual memory is of categories of invariance that repeat across multiple instances. So we encode colors and textures and re-combine these encoded invariants later into some coherence packet that we experience as memory. A color or texture may be inherently harmonic, as perceived aesthetically; but logical coherence between a specific color and a specific texture is a matter of an interpretation that has been contextualized. Meaning is established, we conjecture, via the particulars of the cross scale phenomenon. Meaning emerges. When an event develops, the meaning of the event comes with the formation process. After the event has occurred, one can have a remembrance of the meaning, but that remembrance is an abstraction. Again, is this self-evident to the reader?

We have pointed out that the neuropsychological literature provides strong evidence that subtleties of meaning are encoded in biological and environmental medium. We can represent what is encoded as statistical or categorical artifacts. The use of artifact formalism is useful in revealing nuances and in developing a representation of what can be experienced as knowledge by the human. The structural ontologies are developed from the informed induction of substructural and ultrastructural invariants.

So in summary; the tri-level architecture exploits a separation in the physical process supporting natural intelligence by creating two classes of abstract artifacts. The lower class of artifacts is about the substructural invariance in the world and the upper class is about the non-stationary of the situations in which substructural invariance is manifest in observables. Natural intelligence makes this separation, not for arbitrary reasons but because natural intelligence, unlike artificial intelligence, must depend on actual physical reality for substance.

So how can this difference be used in the context of computer based anticipatory technology? We have suggested that special knowledge artifacts can be generated and composed into sign systems. Then the logical atoms of these systems are developed statistically and assembled into dynamic categorical policies to represent the discussions of a community.

Because context is lost in a formalization process, anticipatory technology needs to be based on a theory of interpretive control and a notational system that provides a means to express this control. We suggest that this theory and notation are available to us now.

The natural science that we cite will deconstruct some of the polemics of Western philosophy, in particular logical positivism and scientific reductionism. The natural science forces upon the mathematician a challenge to extend the notion of induction to symbol systems that are not solely based on the ancient notion of a number or geometric axiom. As these challenges are recognized, we reveal a new information science, and a maturing of the natural sciences.

The rest of the draft of this book is at:

http://www.bcngroup.org/area3/pprueitt/book.htm

---

[1] http://www.cs.umd.edu/~hendler/

[2] Takai-Igarashi, Takako; Mizoguchi, Riichiro. (2004) Ontological Integration of Data models for Cell Signaling Pathways by Defining a Factor of Causality Called “Signal”. Genome Informatics 15(2): 255-265.

[3] Wingender, Edgar, (2003) TRANSFAC^®, TRANSPATH^® and CYTOMER^® as starting points for an ontology of regulatory networks In Silico Biology 4, 0006 (2003); ©2003, Bioinformation Systems e.V.

[4] Auaje, Francisco, Wang, Haiying, and Bodenreider, Oliver (2005), “Ontology-driven similarity approaches to supporting gene function assessment

[5] The Gene Ontology Consortium; (2000) “Gene Ontology: Tool For the Unification of Biology”, Nature Genetics, v. 25: 1 pp, 25-29

[6] Prueitt, Paul S (2006) “The Coming Revolution in Information Science” at URL:

http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/TaosDiscussion/secondschool.htm

[7] Prueitt, Paul S. (1996a). Is Computation Something New?, published in the Proceedings of NIST Conference on Intelligent Systems: A Semiotic Perspective. Session: Memory, Complexity and Control in Biological and Artificial Systems. October 20-23.

[8] URL: www.w3c.org

[9] The standard is discussed in papers posted in the index page: URL:

http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/TaosDiscussion/index.htm

[10] URL: www.bcngroup.org/area1/2005beads/GIF/RoadMap.htm

[11] Resource Description Framework (RDF) is the foundational ontology representation of the W3C, see www.w3c.org.

[12] Pepper, Steve. “The TOA of Topic Maps” URL:

http://www.ontopia.net/topicmaps/materials/tao.html

[13] Prueitt, Paul S. (2002) “Notational Paper”

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/area2/KSF/Notation/notation.htm

[14] Prueitt, Paul S (2006). “Foundational Paper on Referential Bases”. URL”

http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/TaosDiscussion/referentialBases.htm

[15] K Church and P. Hanks. Word association norms, mutual information and lexicography. In Proceedings of the 28^th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, pages 76-83, 1990.

[16] S. Huffman and M. Damashek. ``Acquaintance: A novel vector-space n-gram technique for document categorization. Proceedings of TREC 3.

[17] Mao S, Rosenfeld A, Kanungo T.,  Document structure analysis algorithms: a literature survey, Proc. SPIE Conference on Document Recognition and Retrieval, SPIE Vol. 5010, pp. 197-207, San Jose, CA, January, 2003

[18] Url, Thomas, (2005) “Service Oriented Architecture”

[19] Prueitt, Paul S. (2002) “Mapping the Expression of Social Symbols”

URL: http://www.ontologystream.com/area1/MemeticOntology/mappingSocialSymbols.htm

[20] Van Dijk, Teun A. 1981. Studies in the Pragmatics of Discourse. Mouton, The Hague

[21] Salton, Gerard. 1989. Automatic Text Processing: The Transformation, Analysis, and Retrieval of Information by Computer. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.

[22] Hearst, Marti A. 1994. Context and Structure in Automated Full-Text Information Access. PhD thesis, University of California at Berkeley.

[23] A core concept of genetic algorithms is the concept of a utility function. See: Holland, John “Genetic Algorithms”.

[24] Again, as with Ballard, the work by Adi is not published well. In 2004 I worked with him for a few months in getting a written description of the derivation of his structural ontology. See : How Letter Semantics Were Found: http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/generativeMethodology/AdiStructuredOntology-PartI.htm

[25] Differential ontology was first developed in 2000 by Paul Prueitt as part of work he completed for US Army Intelligence, but not published.

[26] Prueitt, Paul S (2004). “Global Information Framework for Knowledge Management”

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/area1/2005beads/GIF/RoadMap.htm

[27] Prueitt. Paul S (2006). “The Coming Revolution in Information Science”.

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/TaosDiscussion/secondschool.htm

[28] “Foundations 2007” is being produced by re-editing the text of the on line book “Foundations of Knowledge Science”. The project to re-edit and then to publish started in November of 2006.

[29] As an example, reflect on the operating system for your cell phone. Clearly this is designed by a group of people who are not using that operating system.

[30] The KOS foundational designs were focused on minimal and yet powerful generative matrix. Most of this work was completed by Don Mitchell and myself in 1999 and 2000.

URL: http://www.ontologystream.com/cA/index.htm and

URL: http://www.ontologystream.com/beads/webServices/AW-1.htm

[31] A diagram is given in a April 2004 technical note:

URL” http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/InOrb/seven.htm

And additional discussion about the optimality proofs are at;

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/beadgames/TaosDiscussion/referentialBases.htm

[32] The index for these 2006 papers are at:

URL: http://www.ontologystream.com/cA/index.htm

[33] The agencies and the support IT vendor industry had far more important things to do.

[34] Prueitt, Paul S, (2003) The Knowledge Sharing Foundation:

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/area2/knowledgeSharingFoundation.htm

[35] Prueitt, Paul S. “Notational Paper”

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/area2/KSF/Notation/notation.htm

[36] General framework theory is based on stratification and the notion of semantic primes:

Index page URL: http://www.ontologystream.com/beads/webServices/theAnticipatoryWeb.htm

The major application of general framework theory was proposed at the global information framework to US Custom in Dec 2004:

URL: http://www.ontologystream.com/gFT/home.htm

[37] The history of virtual communities is available using the Google search string:

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=history+of+virtual+communities+&btnG=Google+Search

[38] Fildes, Jonathan, Science and technology reporter, BBC News: “The ever-expanding metaverse:

URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6111738.stm

[39] Of course the concept of transaction is generally considered to be localized and precise, whereas many intersystem interactions within an ecosystem has a stratified nature.

[40] OntologyStream Inc capitalization proposal is at:

URL: http://www.bcngroup.org/area2/KSF/KSF-Report.htm

[41] OASIS is the leading standards consortium. The process of creating a standard is an open process participated in by stakeholders. The process of defining a standard generally take two years:

Wiki page for the excellent SOA reference model is at

http://wiki.oasis-open.org/soa-rm

[42] Education Commons is maintained by SUN and Oracle collaborations with MIT and a few other leading universities.

URL: www.educationcommons.com

[43] Schacter, Daniel & Tulving, Endel (Eds) (1995). Memory Systems 1994, The MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.

[44] Levine D; Parks, R.; & Prueitt, P. S. (1993.) Methodological and Theoretical Issues in Neural Network Models of Frontal Cognitive Functions. International Journal of Neuroscience 72 209-233.

[45] Pribram, K. H. (1991). Brain and Perception: Holonomy and Structure in Figural Processing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

[46] Online book by Prueitt, Paul S;

[47] Pospelov, Dmitri (1995). Semiotic Models in Control Systems, In J. Albus, A. Meystel, D. Pospelov, and T Reader, (Eds), Architectures for Semiotic Modeling and Situational Analysis in Large Complex Systems, AdRem, Bala Cynwyd, PA

[48] References to the work by Finn and Pospelov.

[49] Pribram 1991, Lecture 6.

[50] Reference to Stephan’s ART architectures and to Daniel Levine’s book.

[51] Reference

[52] Reference to Susan Dumas’s work

[53] Reference to PowerPoint presentations on DOF

[54] Pribram, K.H. (1971). Languages of the Brain, experimental paradoxes and principles in neuropsychology. New York: Wadsworth.

Pribram, K. H. (1991). Brain and Perception: Holonomy and Structure in Figural Processing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

[55] URL to Cyc Corporation

[56] URL to www.w3c.com

[57] Business Centric Methodology is a type of SOA standard approved in early 2006 by OASIS

URL: www.businesscentricmethodology.com/

[58] The FARES (Formal Analysis of Risk in Enterprise System) is one example of how these templates arise see: http://www.ontologystream.com/gFT/home.htm

[59] Reference to Robert Rosen’s book, Anticipatory Systems.

[60] Paper posted to www.w3.org/DesignIssues/Logic.html and to http://www.bcngroup.org/area3/pprueitt/kmbook/references/TimBernersLee1.htm

[61] http://protege.stanford.edu/

[62] http://www.hpl.hp.com/semweb/

[63] http://www.bcngroup.org/area2/KSF/Notation/notation.htm

[64] K. Jensen: Coloured Petri Nets. Basic Concepts, Analysis Methods and Practical Use. Volume 1, Basic Concepts. Monographs in Theoretical Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, 2nd corrected printing 1997. ISBN: 3-540-60943-1.

[65] Prueitt

[66] Reference to the web

[67] The use of the term “is developed” does not preclude a non-specific cause for what is developed. I might have used the phrase “This polemic comes to be so that terms…” but I then would open the arguments up to an attack that the causes that I am referring to are non-localized. The argument then would be that nothing can come to be that is not developed by some specific mechanism. Non-local cause and non-observable cause is a matter of objective science. We can only create a foundation for the science of knowledge systems of we deal directing with non-observable causes. It is here that we come to the concept of intelligent design, and we find agreement with this concept.

[68] Reference to the web

[69] Conference proceeding

[70] Reference to the web

[71] References to Edelman, Pribram, Houk, Freeman, Gibson.

[72] Use Google on “ABC ontology”

[73] The reader is encouraged to look at the work by Lev Goldfarb on inductive informatics.

[74] Conference proceeding

[75] Rijsbergen, C. J. van (1979) Information Retrieval, Butterworths, London.

[76] Pribram